Peptide Antagonists of TGF-Beta Family Members and Therapeutic Uses Thereof

ABSTRACT

This invention is drawn to methods of using peptide-based antagonists of TGF-beta to facilitate the healing of cutaneous wounds that includes burns, lacerations and scrapes. The administration of peptide TGF-beta antagonists to wounds results in reduced scarring, wound contraction and deposition of extracellular matrix components, and increased rates of reepithelialization during wound healing.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.11/432,125, filed May 11, 2006, which is a continuation of U.S.application. Ser. No. 10/135,946, filed Apr. 29, 2002 (now abandoned),which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/095,637,filed Jun. 11, 1998 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,500,920), which claims thebenefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/050,202, filed on Jun.19, 1997. The entire teachings of the above applications areincorporated herein by reference.

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Health and HumanServices/National Institutes of Health grant number CA38808. The U.S.Government has certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The invention relates generally to antagonists of TGF-β activity,particularly to peptide antagonists of TGF-β activity. The inventionalso relates to methods of accelerating wound healing and preventingscarring by administering peptide antagonists of TGF-μ activity tovertebrates.

2. Description of Related Art

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) is a family of 25-kDa structurallyhomologous dimeric proteins containing one interchain disulfide bond andfour intrachain disulfide bonds. The TGF-β family is composed of threeknown members (TGF-β₁, TGF-β₂, and TGF-β₃) in mammalian species. TGF-βis a bifunctional growth regulator: it is a growth inhibitor forepithelial cells, endothelial cells, T-cells, and other cell types and amitogen for mesenchymal cells. TGF-β also has other biologicalactivities, including stimulation of collagen, fibronectin, andplasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) synthesis, stimulation ofangiogenesis, and induction of differentiation in several cell lineages.

TGF-β has been implicated in the pathogenesis of various diseases suchas cancer, macular degeneration, intimal hyperplasia followingangioplasty, tissue fibrosis (which includes integument scar tissueformation, liver cirrhosis, kidney fibrosis, lung fibrosis, heartfibrosis and others) and glomerulonephritis. It is known in the art thatTGF-β plays an important role in scarring of the skin or organ fibrosis,which occurs as a result of injury or other fibrogenic stimulus. TGF-β'srole in wound healing and scarring revolves around its activity as animportant regulator of the extracellular matrix stimulating fibroplasiaand collagen deposition and inhibiting extracellular matrix degradationby up-regulating the syntheses of protease inhibitors (see Roberts,1995; Roberts and Sporn, 1996; and O'Kane and Ferguson, 1997).Neutralizing antibodies to TGF-β have been used experimentally to reducescarring of wounds, to prevent lung injury in adult respiratory distresssyndrome (ARDS), and to block restenosis following angioplasty in animalmodels. These promising results warrant the development of TGF-βantagonists (inhibitor) that might be useful in inhibiting, amelioratingor reversing the effects of TGF-β and treating diseases. However,practical applications have been limited by the large molecular size ofthe antibodies with resulting instability and poor tissue penetration(O'Kane and Ferguson, ibid; Shah et al., 1994; Shah et al., 1995).

TGF-β peptide antagonists that block TGF-β binding to cell surfacereceptors and inhibit TGF-β-induced growth and transcriptionalactivation are described in copending U.S. application Ser. No.09/095,637 and Huang et al., J. Biol. Chem. 272:27155-27160 (1997). Theeffective concentrations (EC₅₀) of these peptide antagonists, with aminoacid sequences corresponding to the 41st to 65th of TGF-β₁ and TGF-β₂,range from ˜60 nM to 1 μM, depending on the targeted TGF-β isoform. Incontrast to TGF-β neutralizing antibodies, the peptide antagonists arerelatively stable, exert rapid inhibitory actions, and can be appliedtopically. These properties suggest that they are useful for treatinghypertrophic scarring in cutaneous wounds.

3. Related Art Citations

Throughout the instant specification, numerical citations in parenthesesare used to cite specific references. Those references appear below andare herein incorporated by reference. No admission to the status ofthese references as prior art are made.

-   -   1. Derynck, R., Jarrett, J. A., Chen, E. Y., Eaton, D. H.,        Bell, J. R., Assoian, R. K., Roberts, A. B., Sporn, M. B., and        Goeddel, D. V. (1985) Nature 316, 701-705.    -   2. Laiho, M., Weis, F. M. B., and Massagué, J. (1990) J. Biol.        Chem. 265:18518-18524.    -   3. Madison, L., Webb, N. R., Rose, T. M., Marquardt, H., Ikeda,        T., Twardzik, D., Seyedin, S., and Purchio, A. F. (1988) DNA and        Cell Biol. 7:18.    -   4. Schlunegger, M. P., and Grütter, M. G. (1992) Nature        353:430-434.    -   5. Hinck, A. P., Archer, S. J., Qian, S. W., Roberts, A. B.,        Sporn, M. B., Weatherbee, J. A., Tsang, M. L.-S., Lucas, R.,        Zhang, B.-L., Wenker, J., and Torchia, D. A. (1996) Biochem.        35:8517-8534.    -   6. Liu, Q., Huang, S. S., and Huang, J. S. (1997) J. Biol. Chem.        1997 272: 18891-18895.    -   7. O'Grady, P., Kuo, M.-D., Baldassare, J. J., Huang, S. S., and        Huang, J. S. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 288:8583-8589.    -   8. Roberts, A. B. (1995) Transforming growth factor-β: activity        and efficacy in animal models of wound healing. Wound Rep. Reg.        3,408-418.    -   9. Roberts, A. B., and Sporn, M. B. (1996) Transforming growth        factor-β. In: Clark, R. A. F., ed. The Molecular and Cellular        Biology of Wound Repair, 2nd ed. New York, N.Y., Plenum        Publishing Corp., 275-308.    -   10. O'Kane, S. and Ferguson, M. W. (1997) Transforming growth        factor βs and wound healing. Internat. J. Biochem. Cell Biol.        29, 63-78.    -   11. Shah, M., Foreman, D. M., and Ferguson, M. W. J. (1994)        Neutralising antibody to TGF-β_(1,2) reduces cutaneous scarring        in adult rodents. J. Cell Sci. 107, 1137-1157.    -   12. Shah, M., Foreman, D. M., and Ferguson, M. W. J. (1995)        Neutralization of TGF-β₁ and TGF-β₂ or exogenous addition of        TGF-β₃ to cutaneous, rat wounds reduces scarring. J. Cell Sci.        108, 985-1002.    -   13. Huang, S. S., Liu, Q., Johnson, F. E., Konish, Y., and        Huang, J. S. (1997) Transforming growth factor β peptide        antagonists and their conversion to partial agonists. J. Biol.        Chem. 272, 27155-27160.    -   14. Kaufman, t., Levin, M., and Hurwitz, D. J. (1984) The effect        of topical hyperalirnentation on wound healing rate and        granulation tissue formation of experimental deep second degree        burns in guinea pigs. Burns 10, 252-250.    -   15. Knabl, J. S., Bayer, G. S., Bauer, W. A., Schwendenwein, I.,        Dado, P. F., Kucher, C., Horvat, R., Turkof, E., Schossmann, B.,        and Meissl, G. (1999) Controlled partial skin thickness burns:        an animal model for studies of burn wound progression. Burns 25,        229-235.    -   16. Kitamura, M., Shimizu, M., Ino, H., Okeie, K., Yamaguchi,        M., Funjno, N., and Nakanishi, I. (2001) Collagen remodeling and        cardiac dysfunction in patients with hypertrophic        cardiomyopathy: the significance of type IV and VI collagens.        Clin. Cardiol. 24, 325-329.    -   17. Winter, G. D. (1974) Histological aspects of burn wound        healing. Burns 1, 191-196.    -   18. Mutoe, T. A., Pierce, G. F., Morishima, C., and        Deuel, T. F. (1991) Growth factor-induced acceleration of tissue        repair through direct and inductive activities in a rabbit        dermal ulcer model. J. Clin. Invest. 87, 694-703.    -   19. Asheroft, G. S., Yang, X., Glick, A. B., Weinstein, M.,        Letterio, J. J., Mizel, D. E., Anzano, M., Greenwell-Wild, T.,        Wahl, S. M., Deng, C., and Roberts, A. B. (1999) Mice lacking        Smad3 show accelerated wound healing and an impaired local        inflammatory response. Nature Cell Biology 1,260-266.    -   20. Zambruno, G., Marchisio, P. C., Marconi, A., Vaschieri, C.,        Melchiori, A.; Giannetti, A., and DeLuca, M. (1995) Transforming        growth factor-β modulates β₁ and β₅ integrin receptors and        induces the de novo expression of the αvβ6 heterodimer in normal        human keratinocytes: implications for wound healing. J. Cell        Biol. 129, 853-865.    -   21. Xia, Y.-P., Zhao, Y., Marcus, J., Jimenez, P. A., Ruben, S.        M., Moore, P. A., Khan, F., and Mustoe, T. A. (1999) Effects of        keratinocyte growth factor-2 (KGF-2) on wound healing in an        ischemia-impaired rabbit ear model and on scar formation. J.        Pathol. 188, 431-438.    -   22. Liu, Q., Ling. T.-Y., Shieh, H.-S., Johnson, F. E.,        Huang, J. S., and Huang, S. S. (2001) Identification of the high        affinity binding site in transforming growth factor-β involved        in complex formation with α₂-macroglobulin: Implications        regarding the molecular mechanisms of complex formation between        α₂-macroglobulin and growth factors, cytoldnes and hormones. J.        Biol. Chem. 276, 46212-46218.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The inventor has discovered that specific peptide-based TGF-βantagonists are effective in accelerating wound healing and reducingscarring due to wounds, such as burns, scrapes, puncture wounds andlacerations. The TGF-β antagonist peptides may comprise any one of aminoacid sequences as set forth in SEQ ID NO:4-11. The advantages to usingthe TGF-β antagonist peptides in the treatment of skin wounds anddiseases mediated by TGF-β activity are the chemical stability of thepeptides, ease of manufacturing the peptides, and small size of thepeptides, which allows for rapid penetration into the wound relative toanti-TGF-β antibodies.

The invention is drawn to a non-naturally occurring peptide thatcomprises an amino acid sequence derived from TGF-β1, TGF-β2 or TGF-β3,wherein the peptide is capable of binding to a TGF-β receptor, therebyrendering the TGF-β receptor unavailable for the binding of TGF-βmolecules. The peptide comprises a core stretch of amino acids as setforth in SEQ ID NO:10 or SEQ ID NO:11. The preferred peptide comprisesan amino acid sequence according to SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ IDNO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, SEQ ID NO:8 or SEQ ID NO:9. The peptide may alsocomprise an amino acid sequence that is at least 68% identical to anyone of SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5 and SEQ ID NO:6.

The invention is also drawn to methods of treating diseases in avertebrate that are mediated by TGF-β or TGF-β receptor activity,comprising the step of administering to the vertebrate a peptide that isa TGF-β antagonist. Diseases that are mediated by TGF-β or TGF-βreceptor activity include cancer (via reduced immune function orincreased angiogenesis), morbid angiogenesis (which includes e.g.,macular degeneration and tumor growth), intimal hyperplasia, cancer,scarring, fibrosis (e.g., liver cirrhosis, kidney fibrosis lungfibrosis, cystic fibrosis, heart fibrosis), diseases of reduced immunefunction, glomerulonephritis, and respiratory distress syndrome. Thepeptide comprises a core stretch of amino acids as set forth in SEQ IDNO:10 or SEQ ID NO:11. The preferred peptide comprises an amino acidsequence according to SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ IDNO:7, SEQ ID NO:8 or SEQ ID NO:9. The peptide may also comprise an aminoacid sequence that is at least 68% identical to any one of SEQ ID NO:4,SEQ ID NO:5 and SEQ ID NO:6.

The invention is also drawn to methods of inhibiting the activity ofTGF-β in a vertebrate, comprising the step of administering to thevertebrate a peptide that is a TGF-β antagonist. “Inhibiting theactivity of TGF-β” means inhibiting, ameliorating or reversing thephysiological effects mediated by TGF-β in biological systems. Thosephysiological effects include scar formation, deposition of collagen orother extracellular matrix proteins during wound healing, woundcontraction, inhibition or slowing of re-epithelialization (theproliferation of epithelial cells, usually epidermal cells) during theprocess of healing, restenosis of a blood vessel after angioplasty andthe development of some types of cancers. The peptide comprises a corestretch of amino acids as set forth in SEQ ID NO:10 or SEQ ID NO:11. Thepreferred peptide comprises an amino acid sequence according to SEQ IDNO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, SEQ ID NO:8 or SEQ ID NO:9.The peptide may also comprise an amino acid sequence that is at least68% identical to any one of SEQ. ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5 and SEQ ID NO:6.

The invention is further drawn to methods of treating wounds comprisingthe step of topically administering to a wound a composition comprisinga vehicle and a peptide that is a TGF-β antagonist. The method of woundtreatment may have any of the following outcomes, which are relative towounds that have not been treated with the composition: the reduction ofscarring, the reduction of wound contraction, the reduction of thedeposition of extracellular matrix components, such as adhesion proteins(fibronectin, laminin, and vitronectin are examples of adhesionproteins) and collagens (collagens are of several types, including typeI, type II, type III, type IV, type V, type VI and type IX collagen),and the promotion of re-epithelialization during wound healing. Thepeptide comprises a core stretch of amino acids as set forth in SEQ IDNO:10 or SEQ ID NO:11. The preferred peptide comprises an acid sequenceaccording to SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID. NO:7, SEQ IDNO:8 or SEQ ID NO:9. The peptide may also comprise an amino acidsequence that is at least 68% identical to any one of SEQ ID NO:4, SEQID NO:5 and SEQ ID NO:6. A preferred vehicle comprises a physiologicalbuffer, such as phosphate buffered saline and a gel, which contains amodified carboxymethyl-cellulose polymer and propylene glycol, such asIntraSite® Gel Hydrogel Wound Dressing (Smith & Nephew, plc, London UK).Wounds include puncture wounds, pressure wounds, abrasions, lacerationsand burns. Wounds may be in any vertebrate, including humans.

The invention is further drawn to pharmaceutical compositions comprisinga peptide that is a TGF-β antagonist in a pharmaceutically acceptableexcipient.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1: Effect of various concentrations of pentacosapeptides,decapeptides, and their structural variants on TGF-β binding to TGF-βreceptors in mink lung epithelial cells. Cells were incubated with¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁, (Panels A and D), ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₂ (Panel B), and ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₃(Panel C) both with and without 100-fold excess of unlabeled TGF-βisoforms and various concentrations of peptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65), β₂ ²⁵(41-65), and β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) (Panels A, B, and C) or of β₁ ¹⁰ (49-58), β₂¹⁰ (49-58), β₃ ¹⁰ (49-58), β₁ ¹⁰ (49-58) W52A, β₂ ¹⁰ (49-58) S53A, β₂ ¹⁰(49-58) D55A, β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) W52A/D55A and β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) R52A/D55A (PanelD). The specific binding of ¹²⁵I-labeled TGF-β₁ isoforms was thendetermined. The specific binding obtained in the absence of peptideantagonists was taken as 0% inhibition. The specific binding (0%inhibition) of ¹²⁵I-TGFβ₁, ¹²⁵I-TGFβ₂, and ¹²⁵I-TGFβ₃, were 3930±540cpm/well, 4512±131 cpm/well, and 4219±125 cpm/well, respectively. Theerror bars are means±S.D. of triplicate cultures.

FIG. 2: ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁-affinity labeling of cell-surface TGF-β receptorsafter incubation of mink lung epithelial cells with ¹²⁵I-TGFβ₁ in thepresence of various concentrations of peptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and β₃ ²⁵(41-65). Cells were incubated with ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ in the presence of100-fold excess of unlabeled TGF-β₁ (lane 1) and of variousconcentrations of β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (lanes 8-13) and β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) (lanes2-7). The ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ affinity labeling was carried out in the presenceof DSS. The ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ affinity-labeled TGF-β receptors were analyzedby 5% SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and autoradiography. Thearrow indicates the location of the ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ affinity-labeled type VTGF-β receptor (TβR-V). The brackets indicate the locations of the¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ affinity-labeled type I, type II, and type III TGF-βreceptors (TβR-I, TβR-II, and TPR-III).

FIG. 3: Effect of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) on TGF-β₁ induced growthinhibition as measured by DNA synthesis, and TGF-β₁, induced PAI-1expression in mink lung epithelial cells. (Panel A) Cells were incubatedwith various concentrations of TGF-β in the presence of 18 μM peptide β₁²⁵ (41-65). [Methyl-³H]thymidine incorporation into cellular DNA wasthen determined. The [methyl-³H]thymidine incorporation into cellularDNA in cells treated with and without 10 ρM TGF-β₁, were taken as 100and 0% inhibition. The error bars are means±S.D. of triplicate cultures.(Panel B) Cells were incubated with 0.25 ρM TGF-β₁ in the presence ofvarious concentrations of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65). The[methyl-³H]thymidine incorporation into cellular DNA in cells treatedwith and without 10 ρM TGF-β₁ were taken as 100 and 0% inhibition,respectively. The error bars are means±S.D. of triplicate cultures.(Panel C) Cells were treated with 0.25 and 2.5 ρM TGF-β₁ and variousconcentrations of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) for 3 hr. The transcriptionalexpressions of PAI-1 and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase(G3PDH) were determined by Northern blot analysis.

FIG. 4: Effect of β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-CA and β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-BSA peptideconjugates on ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ binding to TGF-β receptors in mink lungepithelial cells and on mink lung epithelial cell growth as measured byDNA synthesis. (Panel A) Cells were incubated with ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ in thepresence and absence of 100-fold excess of unlabeled TGF-β₁ and variousconcentrations of β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-CA peptide conjugate. The specificbinding of ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ was then determined. The specific binding of¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ obtained in the absence of the conjugates was taken as 0%inhibition. The error bars are means±S.D. of triplicate cultures. (PanelB) Cells were treated with various concentrations of β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-CA orβ₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-BSA peptide conjugate. [Methyl-³H]thymidine incorporationinto cellular DNA was determined. The [methyl-³H]thymidine incorporationinto cellular DNA in cell treated with and without 10 ρM TGF-β₁ weretaken as 100 and 0% inhibition, respectively. The error bars aremeans±S.D. of triplicate cultures.

FIG. 5: Panel A shows the amino acid sequences of three TGF-β moleculesand Panel B shows three peptides derived from the TGF-β molecules,extending from amino acid residue number 41 to 65.

FIG. 6: Kinetics of re-epithelialization and contraction in pig burnwounds treated with a TGF-β peptantagonist (peptide TGF-betaantagonist). The rates of wound re-epithelization and contraction weremeasured as a percent of the original wound (panels A and B,respectively). The burns treated with the TGF-β peptantagonist (peptideTGF-beta antagonist) healed faster than the control wounds afterpost-burn day 10 (p<0.005). The burns treated with the TGF-βpeptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist) contracted significantlyafter post-burn day 10 when compared with the control treated withvehicle only (p<0.005).

FIG. 7: Acceleration of wound healing and reduction of scarring byapplication of a TGF-β peptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist) toburn wounds of pigs. Burn wounds treated with a TGF-β peptantagonist(peptide TGF-beta antagonist) or vehicle (gel without peptide) only intwo animals (left and right) were photographed immediately after burninjury (left, panel A and B and right, panel A and B), post-burn day 23(left, panel C and D), post-burn day 34 (right, panel C and D),post-burn day 35 (left, panel E and F) and post-burn day 41 (right,panel E and F). After burn injury, necrosis was present (white color)(left and right, panel A and B). The control wounds exhibited a largeopen wound on post-burn day 23 (left, panel D). In contrast, the woundtreated with the TGF-β peptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist)showed very little open wound (left, panel C). On post-burn day 35 and41, less scar formation was observed in the wound treated with a TGF-βpeptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist) when compared with thecontrol wound (left, panel E versus left, panel F and right, panel Fversus panel E, respectively).

FIG. 8: Kinetics of contraction in pig excision wounds treated withTGF-β peptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist). Excision wounds (3×3cm) were treated with a TGF-β peptantagonist (peptide TGF-betaantagonist) and vehicle-only every two days for the first 10 days andtwice a week for the next 30 days. The rate of wound contraction wasdetermined as a percent of the original wound. Both the wounds treatedwith TGF-β peptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist) and vehicle onlyalmost contracted completely in a horizontal direction (width of thehealed wound) on post-excision day 41. The TGF-β peptantagonist-treatedwound contracted vertically less than the control wound.

FIG. 9: Reduction of contraction in pig excision wounds treated with aTGF-β peptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist). Excision Wounds (3×3cm) on the back of pig skin were treated with a TGF-β peptantagonist(peptide TGF-beta antagonist) (panels A and C) and vehicle-only (panelsB and D) every two days for the first 10 days and twice a week for thenext 30 days. The wounds were photographed immediately after excisioninjury (panels A and B) and at post-wound day 34 (panels C and D). TheTGF-β peptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist)-treated woundexhibited less vertical (length of the healed wound) contraction whencompared with the control wound.

FIG. 10: Immunostaining for type I collagen and fibronectin of excisionwounds in pigs. Sections of pig excision wounds treated with a TGF-βpeptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist) (panels A, C and E), whichwere harvested on post-excision day 28, were histologically evaluatedusing hematoxylin/eosin staining (panels A and B) and were immunostainedfor type I collagen and fibronectin (panels C, D and E, F,respectively). The wound treated with a TGF-β peptantagonist (peptideTGF-beta antagonist) showed less intensity of staining for type Icollagen and fibronectin than the control wound.

FIG. 11: Reduction of scarring in rabbit ear excision wounds treatedwith TGF-β peptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist). Excision wounds(0.5×1 cm) in rabbit ears were treated with a TGF-β peptantagonist(peptide TGF-beta antagonist) (TGF-blocker), vehicle only (sham) andnothing (negative). These wounds were photographed immediately afterexcision injury (panel A) and at post-excision day 10. TheTGF-β-peptantagonist (peptide TGF-beta antagonist) treated wounds showedreduced scarring relative to the control wounds.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

TGF-β antagonists or inhibitors that specifically bind to TGF-βreceptors, which include type I, type II, type III and type V receptors,are disclosed. It was discovered that three chemically synthesizedpeptides, which correspond in sequence to amino acid numbers 41-65 ofTGF-β₁ (SEQ ID NO:4), TGF-β₂ (SEQ NO:5), and TGF-β₃ (SEQ ID NO:6), andwhich comprise a core amino acid sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO:10or SEQ ID NO:11, inhibit the binding of TQF-β₁, TGF-β₂, and TGF-β₃, toTGF-β receptors in epithelial cells. The peptides also blockTGF-β-induced growth inhibition and TGF-β-induced expression of PAI-1 inepithelial cells. It was also discovered that the W/RXXD motif foundwithin the peptide sequences determines the specificity of activity ofthe antagonist peptide. In view of these discoveries, peptides thatcomprise amino acid sequences corresponding to SEQ ID NO:10 or SEQ IDNO:11 are considered to be antagonists of TGF-β activity. It was alsodiscovered that these TGF-β peptide antagonists can be converted topartial agonists (i.e., agent which mimics the effects of TGF-β) byconjugation to carriers such as proteins or synthetic polymers.

A stepwise sequence comparison between SEQ ID NO:4 (amino acids 41-65 ofTGF-β1), SEQ ID NO:5 (amino acids 41-65 of TGF-β2), and SEQ ID NO:6(amino acids 41-65 of TGF-β3), has revealed that SEQ ID NO:4 and SEQ IDNO:6 are 68% identical; SEQ ID NO:4 and SEQ ID NO:5 are 80% identical;and SEQ ID NO:5 and SEQ ID NO:6 are 72% identical. Thus non-naturallyoccurring TGF-β peptide agonists may comprise an amino acid sequencethat is at least 68% identical to any one of SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5,and SEQ ID NO:6; and including the decapeptides of SEQ ID NO:7, SEQ IDNO:8, and SEQ ID NO:9.

Percent identity is intended to mean the percentage of the same aminoacid residues between two sequences. To determine the percent identityof any given peptide, the reference sequence may be SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ IDNO:5 or SEQ ID NO:6. The two sequences being compared are aligned usingthe Clustal method (Higgins et al, Cabios 8:189-191, 1992) of multiplesequence alignment in the Lasergene biocomputing software (DNASTAR, INC,Madison, Wis.). In this method, multiple alignments are carried out in aprogressive manner, in which larger and larger alignment groups areassembled using similarity scores calculated from a series of pairwisealignments. Optimal sequence alignments are obtained by finding themaximum alignment score, which is the average of all scores between theseparate amino acid residues in the alignment, determined from a residueweight table representing the probability of a given amino acid changeoccurring in two related peptides over a given evolutionary interval.Penalties for opening and lengthening gaps in the alignment contributeto the score. The default parameters used with this program are asfollows: gap penalty for multiple alignment=10; gap length penalty formultiple alignment=10; k-tuple value in pairwise alignment=1; gappenalty in pairwise alignment=3; window value in pairwise alignment=5;diagonals saved in pairwise alignment=5. The residue weight table usedfor the alignment program is PAM250 (Dayhoff et al., in Atlas of ProteinSequence and Structure, Dayhoff, Ed., NBRF, Washington, Vol. 5, suppl.3, p. 345, 1978).

The invention is thus drawn to non-naturally occurring peptides, andmodifications thereof, that antagonize TGF-β activity, and compositionscomprising peptides that antagonize of TGF-β activity. By “non-naturallyoccurring”, it is meant that the peptide is artificially produced bychemical synthesis, genetic recombinant methods or enzymatic digestionof isolated polypeptides, and that the peptide does not comprise a fulllength mature TGF-β polypeptide. The non-naturally occurring peptide maybe modified, wherein such modifications include glycosylation,lipidation, amidation, phosphorylation, acetylation, PEGylation (theaddition of polyethylene glycol to stabilize the peptide) andalbumination (the conjugation of an albumin moiety to increase thebiological half-life of the peptide). By “antagonize”, it is meant thatthe non-naturally occurring peptide of the instant invention binds to aTGF-β receptor and prevents the activation of that TGF-β receptor.Antagonization may be complete or it may be partial, whereby some TGF-βreceptor activation may occur in the vertebrate after administration ofthe non-naturally occurring peptide. As used herein, “TGF-β receptors”are integral membrane proteins that bind TGF-β molecules. TGF-βreceptors generally comprise a type I receptor component and a type IIreceptor component. Presently, there are seven known mammalian membersof type I receptors, including activin receptor-like kinases 1 to 6(ALK1-ALK6), and five known members of type II receptors, includingactivin type II and type IIB receptor (ActRII/IIB), TGF-β type IIreceptor (TβRII), BMP type II receptor (BMPRII), and MIS type IIreceptor (MISRII). TGF-β receptors, in addition to type I and type IItypes, also include type III and type V receptors (Ref. 6). However, inthe practice of this invention, yet to be identified TGF-β receptors arecovered by the term “TGF-β receptor”. For a brief review of TGF-βreceptor biology, see Moustakas, et al., J. Cell Sci. 114:4359-4369,which is herein incorporated by reference.

The non-naturally occurring peptides bind to TGF-β receptors, therebyblocking the binding of active TGF-β receptor agonists to TGF-βreceptors and “inhibiting the activity of TGF-β”. The activities ofTGF-β, mimetics of TGF-β or TGF-β receptor agonists, which are wellknown in the art, include (a) both proliferation and anti-proliferationeffects on certain cells and tissues, depending on the state and type ofcell, (b) cell differentiation, cell death, cell migration, embryonicdevelopment, tumor growth and wound healing, and (c) promoting theproduction of cell-adhesion molecules, extracellular matrix moleculesand other growth factors. For a review on TGF-β structure and function,see Lodish et al., “Molecular Cell Biology,” Third Edition, ScientificAmerican Books (1995), Gilbert, Scott F., “Developmental Biology,” FifthEdition, Sinauer Associates, Inc., (1997), and Alberts et al.,“Molecular Biology of the Cell,” Third Edition, Garland Publishing, Inc.(1994), which are herein incorporated by reference.

The non-naturally occurring peptide TGF-β antagonists of the presentinvention are useful in treating individuals suffering from diseases orconditions that are modulated at least in part by TGF-β. Diseases andconditions which may be ameliorated by the administration of peptideTGF-β antagonists include carcinomas, such as breast cancer andpancreatic cancer (see Gold, L. I., [1999] “The role of transforminggrowth factor-β (TGF-β) in human cancer”, Crit. Rev. Oncol. 10:303-360;which is herein incorporated by reference), developmental defects, suchas neural tube defects, wounds, such as cutaneous burns, lacerations,punctures and abrasions, intimal hyperplasia (which results in bloodvessel blockage by the thickening of arterial lining) and restenosis ofblood vessels after angioplasty, angiogenesis that allows tumor growth,insufficient immune system function, angiogenesis (which is involved ine.g., tumor growth and macular degeneration), tumor metastasis (throughthe activity of proteases on the extracellular matrix), fibrosis (e.g.,integument scarring, cystic fibrosis, liver cirrhosis, kidney fibrosis,lung fibrosis, and heart fibrosis) glomerulonephritis, and respiratorydistress syndrome. The invention is therefore also drawn to therapeuticor pharmaceutical compositions, which comprise a peptide TGF-βantagonist, useful in the treatment of diseases or conditions that aremodulated at least in part by TGF-β.

It has been discovered by the inventor that a peptide TGF-β antagonist,which comprises a sequence of SEQ ID NO:10 or SEQ ID NO:11, (a)accelerates re-epithelialization of skin and reduces wound contractionand scarring during the healing of a burn injury and diminishes woundcontraction and scarring, relative to untreated control wounds, in boththe pig and rabbit excision injury models. “Re-epithelialization” is thegrowth of the outer layer of skin or epidermis over the wound during thehealing process. “Hypertrophic scarring”, “scarring”, or “fibrosis” isthe process whereby fibrous connective tissue replaces dermis or anyother connective tissue that lies subjacent to an epithelium duringtissue repair. “Wound contraction” is the process whereby scar tissue orgranulation tissue contracts. The discovery that re-epithelialization isaccelerated by a peptide TGF-β antagonist was surprising and unexpected.Burn wound healing consists of epithelialization, contraction andformation of granulation and scar tissue (Refs. 8-12). TGF-β is believedto be involved in most of these events. The peptide TGF-β antagonist ofthe present invention is thought to block or slow down the occurrence ofthese events. However, the data shown in the examples that follow areconsistent with a report that Smad3-null mice have accelerated cutaneouswound healing compared with wild-type mice (Ref. 18). Wounds in theseanimals have an increased rate of re-epithelialization and significantlyreduced local infiltration of monocytes. The Smad3 signaling plays animportant role in TGF-β-stimulated expression of collagen, chemotaxis ofmonocytes and growth inhibition of keratinocytes. The mechanism ofenhanced re-epithelialization in wounds treated with the peptide TGF-βantagonist of the present invention may involve increased keratinocyteproliferation (transient inhibition of keratinocyte proliferation byTGF-β may be an integral component in the complex process of woundhealing) coupled with a migration response stimulated by growth factorsother than TGF-β (Refs. 18-21). The peptide TGF-β antagonist of thepresent invention has been shown to block complex formation betweenα₂-macroglobulin and growth factors, cytokines and hormones (seereference 15) and thus, may enhance activation, of these substances oragents by blocking inhibition of their activities mediated byα₂-macroglobulin.

Peptide TGF-β antagonists of the present invention comprise the aminoacid motif W/RSXD, wherein X is any amino acid (SEQ ID NO:10 and SEQNO:11). The W/RXXD motif was demonstrated to be an important siteinvolved in the interaction of peptides with TGF-β β receptors. Thisconclusion is supported by several lines of evidence presented inExamples, including: 1) among the seven pentacosapeptides (peptidesconsisting of 25 amino acids), whose amino acid sequences cover most ofthe TGF-β₁ molecule, only peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65), which contains theW/RXXD motif in the middle of the peptide amino acid sequence, has TGF-βantagonist activity; 2) pentacosapeptides and decapeptides (peptidesconsisting of 10 amino acids) containing this W/RXXD motif are potentTGF-β antagonists; 3) replacement of W-52/R-52 and D-55 by alanineresidues abolishes the antagonist activities of these decapeptides andpentacosapeptides; 4) conjugation of the peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)antagonist to carrier proteins creates a partial TGF-β agonist; and 5)several proteins that possess W/RXXD motifs have TGF-β agonist andantagonist activities. Preferred peptide TGF-β antagonists comprise anyone of SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, SEQ ID NO:8or SEQ ID NO:9; or peptides that are at least 68% identical to thesesequences.

The therapeutic or pharmaceutical compositions of the present inventionmay be administered by any suitable route known in the art including forexample via intraarterial catheterization, intravenous, subcutaneous,intramuscular, transdermal, intrathecal, intracerebral, oral or topical.Administration may be either rapid as by injection or over a period oftime as by slow infusion or administration of slow release formulation.For treating tissues in the central nervous system, administration maybe by injection or infusion into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). When itis intended that a peptide TGF-β antagonist be administered to cells inthe central nervous system, administration may be with one or moreagents capable of promoting penetration of a peptide TGF-β antagonistacross the blood-brain barrier. For treating intimal hyperplasia orrestenosis, the peptide antagonist may be administered via intraarterialcatheterization during angioplasty procedures. The peptide may also beapplied on the surface of the stent that is left in place duringangioplasty. When it is intended that the peptide TGF-β antagonist beused to reduce scar tissue (fibrosis) formation during the healing ofsurgical incisions, especially incisions made during plastic surgeryprocedures, the peptide TGF-β antagonist peptide may be subcutaneouslyinjected into the area of the incision or healing wound.

A peptide TGF-β antagonist may also be linked or conjugated with agentsthat provide desirable pharmaceutical or pharmacodynamic properties. Forexample, a peptide TGF-β antagonist may be coupled to any substanceknown in the art to promote penetration or transport across theblood-brain barrier such as an antibody to the transferrin receptor, andadministered by intravenous injection. (See for example, Friden et al.,Science 259:373-377, 1993 which is incorporated by reference).Furthermore, a peptide TGF-β antagonist may be stably linked to apolymer such as polyethylene glycol or albumin to obtain desirableproperties of solubility, stability, half-life and otherpharmaceutically advantageous properties. (See for example Davis et al.Enzyme Eng 4:169-73, 1978; Burnham, Am J Hosp Pharm 51:210-218, 1994which are incorporated by reference).

The compositions comprising peptide TGF-β antagonists are usuallyemployed in the form of pharmaceutical preparations. Such preparationsare made in a manner well known in the pharmaceutical art. One preferredpreparation utilizes a vehicle of physiological saline solution, but itis contemplated that other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers such asphysiological concentrations of other non-toxic salts, five percentaqueous glucose solution, sterile water or the like may also be used. Itmay also be desirable that a suitable buffer be present in thecomposition. Such solutions may, if desired, be lyophilized and storedin a sterile ampoule ready for reconstitution by the addition of sterilewater for ready injection. The primary solvent may be aqueous oralternatively non-aqueous. A peptide TGF-β antagonist may also beincorporated into a solid or semi-solid biologically compatible matrixwhich may be implanted into tissues requiring treatment. A peptide TGF-βantagonist may also be incorporated into a hydrogel wound dressing, suchas an IntraSite® Gel Hydrogel Wound Dressing (Smith & Nephew, plc,London UK), which comprises a modified carboxymethyl-cellulose polymerand propylene glycol.

The carrier may also contain other pharmaceutically-acceptableexcipients for modifying or maintaining the pH, osmolarity, viscosity,clarity, color, sterility, stability, rate of dissolution, or odor ofthe formulation. Similarly, the carrier may contain still otherpharmaceutically-acceptable excipients for modifying or maintainingrelease or absorption or penetration across membranes or other barriers,such as the epidermis, the lining of the alimentary canal, theendothelium or the blood-brain barrier.

It is also contemplated that certain formulations containing a peptideTGF-β antagonist are to be administered orally. Such formulations arepreferably encapsulated and formulated with suitable carriers in soliddosage forms. Some examples of suitable carriers, excipients, anddiluents include lactose, dextrose, sucrose, sorbitol, mannitol,starches, gum acacia, calcium phosphate, alginates, calcium silicate,microcrystalline cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, cellulose, gelatin,syrup, methyl cellulose, methyl- and propylhydroxybenzoates, talc,magnesium, stearate, water, mineral oil, and the like. The formulationsmay additionally include lubricating agents, wetting agents, emulsifyingand suspending agents, preserving agents, sweetening agents or flavoringagents. The compositions may be formulated so as to provide rapid,sustained, or delayed release of the active ingredients afteradministration to the patient by employing procedures well known in theart. The formulations may also contain substances that diminishproteolytic degradation and promote absorption such as, for example,surface active agents.

The specific dose is calculated according to the approximate body weightor body surface area of the patient or the volume of body space to beoccupied. The dose will also be calculated dependent upon the particularroute of administration selected. Further refinement of the calculationsnecessary to determine the appropriate dosage for treatment is routinelymade by those of ordinary skill in the art. Such calculations may bemade without undue experimentation by one skilled in the art in light ofthe activity of a peptide TGF-β antagonist. The data showing activity ofa peptide TGF-β antagonist are herein disclosed in the Examples and incopending application Ser. No. 09/095,637, which is herein incorporatedby reference. Furthermore, the activity of a peptide TGF-β antagonist ona particular target cell type may be determined by routineexperimentation. Exact dosages are determined in conjunction withstandard dose-response studies. It will be understood that the amount ofthe composition actually administered will be determined by apractitioner, in the light of the relevant circumstances including thecondition or conditions to be treated, the choice of composition to beadministered, the age, weight, and response of the individual patient,the severity of the patient's symptoms, and the chosen route ofadministration.

The above disclosure describes several, preferred embodiments of theinvention. The skilled artisan will recognize that other embodiments ofthis invention, which are not overtly disclosed herein, may be employedin the practice of this invention. The invention is further illustratedby the examples described below, which are not meant to limit theinvention.

Examples Example 1 Development of Peptide Antagonists of TGF-βExperimental Procedures

Materials. Na¹²⁵ (17 Ci/mg) and [methyl-³H]thymicline (67 Ci/mmole) werepurchased from ICN Radiochemicals (Irvine, Calif.). Highmolecular-weight protein standards (myosin, 205 kDa; β-galactosidase,116 kDa; phosphorylase, 97 kDa; bovine serum albumin, 66 kDa),chloramine T, bovine serum albumin (BSA), and human carbonic anhydrase I(CA) were purchased from Sigma Company (St. Louis, Mo.). Disuccinimidylsuberate (DSS) was obtained from Pierce (Rockford, Ill.). TGF-β₁ waspurchased from Austral Biologicals (San Ramon, Calif.). TGF-β₂ andTGF-β₃ were purchased from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, Minn.).

Preparation of peptides. The amino acid sequences of all peptides werederived from those of TGF-β₁, TGF-β₂, and TGF-β₃. For peptides β₁ ²⁵(41-65), β₂ ²⁵ (41-65), and β₃ ²⁵ (41-65), other versions in whichcysteine-44 and cysteine-48 were replaced by serine residues were alsosynthesized. These C44S/C48S versions of peptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (SEQ IDNO:4), β₂ ²⁵ (41-65) (SEQ ID NO:5), and β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) (SEQ ID NO:6) hadthe same TGF-β antagonist activity. The C44S/C48S version of peptide β₁⁵ (41-65) is designated SEQ ID NO:12, the C44S/C48S version of thepeptide β₂ ²⁵ (41-65) is designated SEQ ID NO:13, and the C44S/C48Sversion of peptide of β₃ ²⁵(41-61) is designated SEQ ID NO:14. TheC44S/C48S versions had better stability in solution during storage, sothey were used in most of the experiments. The peptides were synthesizedusing tert-butoxycarbonyl chemistry on an Applied Biosystems Model 431Apeptide synthesizer and purified using Sephadex G-25 columnchromatography and reverse-phase HPLC (C-8 column). The purity of thesynthesized peptides were verified by automated Edman degradation on anApplied Biosystems Model 477A gas/liquid phase protein sequenator withan on-line Applied Biosystems Model 120A phenylthiohydantoin amino acidanalyzer. The purity of all peptides was estimated to be ≧95%.

Preparation of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-carbonic anhydrase (CA) and peptideβ₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-bovine serum albumin (BSA) conjugates. 150 μl of 3 mMpeptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (SEQ ID NO:4) in phosphate buffer saline (pHadjusted to ˜9.0) was mixed with 300 μl of 0.1 M NaHCO₃ (pH ˜9.0)containing BSA or CA (0.5 mg) and 10 μl of 27 mM DSS in dimethylsulfoxide. After 18 hr at 4° C., the reaction mixture was mixed with 50μl of 1 M ethanolamine HCl in 0.1 M NaHCO₃ (˜pH 9.0). After 2 hr at roomtemperature, the reaction mixture was dialyzed against 2 liters of 0.1 MNaHCO₃ (˜pH 9.0). After four changes of the dialysis solution, thesample was stored at 4° C. prior to use. The molar ratio of peptide β₁²⁵ (41-65)/carrier protein in the conjugate was determined by amino acidcomposition analysis.

Specific binding of ¹²⁵I-labeled TGF-β₁, TGF-β₂, and TGF-β₃(¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁, ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₂, and ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₃) to TGF-β receptors in minklung epithelial cells. ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁, ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₂, and ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₃ wereprepared by iodination of TGF-β₁, TGF-β₂, and TGF-β₃ with Na¹²⁵I asdescribed previously (Ref. 7). The specific radioactivities of¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁, ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₂, and ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₃ were 1-3×10⁵ cpm/ng. Mink lungepithelial cells were grown on 24-well clustered dishes to nearconfluence in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (DMEM) containing 10%fetal calf serum. The epithelial cells were incubated with 0.1 nM¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁, ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₂, or ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₃ both with and without 100-foldexcess of unlabeled TGF-β₁, TGF-β₂, or TGF-β₃ in binding buffer (Ref.7). After 2.5 hr at 0° C., the cells were washed two times with bindingbuffer, and the cell-associated radioactivity was determined. Thespecific binding of ¹²⁵I-labeled TGF-β isoforms to TGF-β receptors inthe cells was calculated by subtracting non-specific binding (in thepresence of 100-fold excess of the unlabeled TGF-β isoforms) from totalbinding. All experiments were carried out in triplicate cell cultures.

¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁-affinity labeling of cell-surface TGF-β receptors in minklung epithelial cells. Mink lung epithelial cells grown on 60-mm Petridishes were incubated with 0.1 nM ¹²⁵I in the presence of variousconcentrations of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) or peptide β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) inbinding buffer. After 2.5 hr at 0° C., ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁-affinity labeling wascarried out in the presence of DSS as described. The¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁-affinity-labeled TGF-β receptors were analyzed by 5%SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under reducing conditions andautoradiography.

[Methyl-³H]thymidine Incorporation—Mink lung epithelial cells grown on24-well clustered dishes were incubated with various concentrations ofin the presence and absence of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) or with variousconcentrations of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-CA, and peptide β₁ ²⁵(41-65)-BSA in DMEM containing 0.1% fetal calf serum. After 16 hr at 37°C., the cells were pulsed with 1 μCi/ml of [methyl-³H]thymidine for 4hr. The cells were then washed twice with 1 ml of 10% trichloroaceticacid and once with 0.5 ml of ethanol:ether (2:1, v/v). The cells werethen dissolved in 0.4 ml of 0.2 N NaOH and counted with a liquidscintillation counter.

RNA Analysis—Mink lung epithelial cells were grown overnight in 12-wellclustered dishes in DMEM containing 10% fetal calf serum. The medium wasthen changed to DMEM containing 0.1% fetal calf serum and the cells wereincubated with 0.25 and 2.5 ρM TGF-β₁ in the presence of variousconcentrations of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) for 2.5 hr. Total cellular RNAwas extracted using RNAzol B (Tel-Test Inc.) according to themanufacturer's protocol. RNA was electrophoresed in 1.2%agarose-formaldehyde gel and transferred to Duralon-UV membranes using10×SSC. The membranes were probed at 42° C. with a random-primed,radiolabeled 1-kb fragment from the Hind III and NeoI digests of PAI-1cDNA and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (“GAPDH”) cDNA. Theblots were washed with 0.1×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at room temperature.

Experimental Results

To develop peptide antagonists of TGF-β, seven pentacosapeptides(peptides containing 25 amino acids) were synthesized: peptide β₁ ²⁵(21-45), peptide β₁ ²⁵ (31-55), peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (SEQ ID NO:4),peptide β₁ ²⁵ (51-75), peptide β₁ ²⁵ (61-85), peptide β₁ ²⁵ (71-95), andpeptide β₁ ²⁵ (81-105), whose amino acid sequences overlap one anotherand cover most of the human TGF-β₁ molecule, the monomer of which has112 amino acid residues (SEQ ID NO:1) (ref. 1). The antagonistactivities of these peptides were first tested for their abilities toinhibit ¹²⁵I-labeled TGF-β₁ (¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁) binding to cell-surface TGF-βreceptors in mink lung epithelial cells, an art recognized model systemfor investigating TGF-β receptor types and TGF-β-induced cellularresponses (ref. 2). Peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (SEQ ID NO:4), completelyinhibited the ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ binding (specific binding withoutpeptides=3672±524 cpm/well) to TGF-β receptors in mink lung epithelialcells at 34 μM. The other six pentacosapeptides did not show any effecton ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ binding to TGF-β receptors in these epithelial cells,even at a concentration of 136 μM. This demonstrates that peptide β₁ ²⁵(41-65) (SEQ ID NO:4) is a TGF-β inhibitor or antagonist.

TGF-β isoforms (TGF-β₁, TGF-β₂, and TGF-β₃) have been shown to exhibitdifferent potencies in inducing cellular responses in certain cell typesor systems. There is ˜70% amino acid sequence homology at the 41st to65th amino acid residues among these three TGF-β isoforms (Refs. 1-3)(FIG. 5A). To determine the potencies of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (SEQ IDNO:4), peptide β₂ ²⁵ (41-65) (SEQ ID NO:5), and peptide β₃ ²⁵ (41-65)(SEQ ID NO:6) in terms of TGF-β antagonist activity, the effects ofthese peptides on the binding of ¹²⁵I-labeled TGF-β₁, TGF-β₂, and TGF-β₃to TGF-β receptors in mink lung epithelial cells were measured. As shownin FIG. 1, both peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and peptide β₂ ²⁵ (41-65)inhibited ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ and ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₂ binding to TGF-β receptors in aconcentration-dependent manner with an IC₅₀ of ˜1-2 μM (FIGS. 1, A andB). Peptide β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) was weaker with an IC₅₀ of ˜20 μM forinhibiting ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ and ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₂ binding to TGF-β receptors (FIGS.1, A and B). In contrast, peptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and β₃ ²⁵ (41-65)showed equal potency (IC₅₀=˜0.06-0.08 μM) when ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₃ was used asligand for testing the inhibitory activity (FIG. 1, C). Peptide β₂ ²⁵(41-65) also had an IC₅₀ of ˜0.08 μM for inhibiting ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₃ bindingto TGF-β receptors in these epithelial cells. These results show thatboth peptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and β₂ ²⁵ (41-65) are more potentantagonists than peptide β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) for ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₃ and ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₂,and that all three pentacosapeptides are potent antagonists for¹²⁵I-TGF-β₃ with equal IC₅₀.

The region spanning residues 41-65 comprises a loop in thethree-dimensional structure of TGF-β₁ and TGF-β₂ (Ref. 4, 5). This loopis accessible to solvent according to X-ray and NMR analyses (Ref. 4,5). There are two reasons why a WSXD (for TGF-β₁ and TGF-β₂; SEQ IDNO:10) or RSXD (for TGF-β₃ SEQ ID NO:11) motif in the loop is a goodcandidate site whereby these antagonist peptides and their parentmolecules could interact with TGF-β receptors. The W/RSXD(52^(nd)-55^(th) amino acid residues) motif is located on the exposedsurface of the loop, and the side chains of the amino acid residues inthe motif orient toward the solvent (Ref. 4, 5). Also, this motif maydetermine the affinities of peptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65), β₂ ²⁵ (41-65), andβ₃ ²⁵ (41-65), and their parent molecules for binding to TGF-βreceptors. Both peptide β₁ ⁷⁵ (41-65) and peptide β₂ ²⁵ (41-65) sharethe same motif (WSXD; SEQ ID NO:10) and have equal potencies (IC₅₀=˜1-2μM) for the inhibition of ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ binding to TGF-β receptors.Peptide β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) possesses a distinct motif of RSXD (SEQ ID NO:11)and is a weaker inhibitor (IC₅₀ of ˜20 μM). The K_(d)s for TGF-β₁ andTGF-β₂ binding to the type V TGF-β receptor are identical (˜0.4 nM),whereas the Kd of TGF-β₃ binding to the type V receptor is higher (˜5nM) (Ref. 6).

To test the possibility that the W/RSXD motif is the active site ofthese peptides, three decapeptides designated β₁ ¹⁰ (49-58), β₂ ¹⁰(49-58), and β₃ ¹⁰ (49-58), which respectively correspond to SEQ IDNO:7, SEQ ID NO:8 and SEQ ID NO:9, were designed. The W/RSXD variants ofthese decapeptides, in which the W-52, S-53, or D-55 residue wasreplaced by an alanine residue, were also synthesized and designatedpeptide β₂ ¹⁰ (49-58) W52A, peptide β₂ ¹⁰ (49-58) S53A, and peptide β₂¹⁰ (49-58) D55A, respectively. The ability of each of these decapeptidesto inhibit ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ binding to TGF-β receptors in mink lungepithelial cells were then examined. As shown in FIG. 1D, both peptideβ₁ ¹⁰ (49-58) and peptide β₂ ¹⁰ (49-58) inhibited the ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁binding to TGF-β receptors in a concentration-dependent manner with anIC₅₀ of ˜40-70 μM. Peptide β₃ ¹⁰ (49-58) did not show any inhibitoryactivity at concentrations up to ˜300 μM. Peptide β₂ ¹⁰ (49-58) S53A wasequipotent with an IC₅₀ of ˜40 μM. The other variants, peptide β₂ ¹⁰(49-58) W52A and peptide β₂ ¹⁰ (49-58) D55A, failed to inhibit¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ binding to TGF-β receptors in these epithelial cells.Identical experiments with peptides β₁ ¹⁰ (49-58) W52A, β₁ ¹⁰ (49-58)S53A, and β₁ ¹⁰ (49-58) D55A were also carried out, and the results weresimilar to those shown in FIG. 2D with the β₂ ¹⁰ (49-58) peptidevariants. These results suggest that the WXXD motif is important for theinhibitory activity of the decapeptides β₁ ¹⁰ (49-58) and β₂ ¹⁰ (49-58).

To demonstrate that the W/RYXD motif is also important for theinhibitory activities of the pentacosapeptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and β₃ ²⁵(41-65), variants of peptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and β₃ ²⁵ (41-65), in whichboth W- or R-52 and D-55 were replaced by alanine residues, wereprepared. These peptide variants were designated β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) W52A/D55Aand β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) R52A/D55A, respectively, and tested for theirinhibitory activities. FIG. 1D shows that peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)W52A/D55A and peptide β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) R52A/D55A did not inhibit¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ binding to TGF-β receptors, thereby supporting theconclusion that the motif W/RXXD is involved in the interactions of theinstant peptide antagonists with TGF-β receptors.

Mink lung epithelial cells express all of the known TGF-β receptors(type I, type II, type III, and type V receptors) (see Ref. 6). Todetermine the relative sensitivities of TGF-β receptor types toinhibition by peptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and β₃ ²⁵ (41-65) with respect toligand binding, mink lung epithelial cell-surface TGF-β receptors werelabeled with ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ in the presence of various concentrations ofpeptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and β₃ ²⁵ (41-65). As shown in FIG. 2, allcell-surface TGF-β receptors (type I, type II, type III, and type Vreceptors) were affinity-labeled with ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ in the absence of theantagonists (lanes 7 and 13). Peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) appeared to inhibitthe ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁-affinity labeling of all TGF-β receptor types in aconcentration-dependent manner (lanes 8-42). However, β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)inhibition of the ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁-affinity labeling of the type V TGF-βreceptor was greater than its inhibition of other TGF-β receptor types.The ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁-affinity labeling of the type V TGF-β receptor wasalmost completely abolished by peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) at 2.3 μM, whereasthe ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁-affinity labeling of other TGF-β receptor types was onlypartially inhibited (30-40%) (FIG. 2, lane 10). This result isconsistent with the observation that the affinity for TGF-β₁ binding tothe type V TGF-β receptor is ˜20-40-fold lower than those for TGF-β₁binding to other TGF-β receptor types (Ref. 6). Peptide β₃ ²⁵ (41-65)showed weak activity in blocking the ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁-affinity labeling ofthe type V TGF-β receptor (FIG. 2, lanes 2-5).

It has been demonstrated that peptides β₁ ²⁵ (41-65), β₂ ²⁵ (41-65), andβ₃ ²⁵ (41-65) are potent inhibitors for ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁ binding to TGF-βreceptors. To further establish the role of the instant peptides asTGF-β antagonists or inhibitors, these peptides are shown to block aTGF-β-induced cellular response, i.e., growth inhibition. The effect ofpeptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) on TGF-β₁-induced growth inhibition wasinvestigated by exposing mink lung epithelial cells to variousconcentrations of TGF-β₁ in the presence of 18 μM peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)and measuring cellular DNA synthesis. As shown in FIG. 3A, DNA synthesisinhibition induced by 0.025 ρM and 0.25 ρM TGF-β₁ was completely blockedby peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65). In the presence of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65), thedose-response curve of TGF-β₁ shifted to the right. Peptide β₁ ²⁵(41-65) blocked TGF-β₁-induced growth inhibition in aconcentration-dependent manner (FIG. 3B). It is important to note thatpeptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (0.1 μM to 36 μM) did not have an effect on DNAsynthesis in the absence of TGF-β₁. These results suggest that peptideβ₁ ²⁵ (41-65) is a TGF-β antagonist, which blocks TGF-β-induced growthinhibition.

The other prominent biological activity of TGF-β is transcriptionalactivation of collagen, adhesion protein (i.e., fibronectin), and PAI-1.To see if peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) is able to block this activity, theeffect of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) on PAI-1 expression in mink lungepithelial cells stimulated by 0.25 ρM and 2.5 ρM TGF-β₁ wasinvestigated. As shown in FIG. 3C, peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) completelyblocked the PAI-1 expression stimulated by TGF-β₁ (lane 7 versus lanes 3and 5). These results further support the conclusion that peptide β₁ ²⁵(41-65) is a potent TGF-β antagonist.

The dimeric structure of TGF-β has been shown to be required for itsbiological activities. The hetero-oligomerization of TGF-β receptorsinduced by the TGF-β dimer appears to trigger signaling. If peptide β₁²⁵ (41-65) contains the active site sequence involved in the interactionof TGF-β₁ with TGF-β receptors, one may be able to convert itsantagonist activity to agonist activity by conjugating peptide β₁ ²⁵(41-65) to carrier proteins, such that the β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-proteinconjugates would carry multiple valences of the putative active site. Totest this possibility, peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) was conjugated to carrierproteins CA (carbonic anhydrase) and BSA (bovine serum albumin) usingthe cross-linking agent DSS. DSS mainly cross-links the α-amino group ofpeptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) to the ε-amino groups of the carrier proteins. Theβ₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-BSA and β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-CA conjugates contained ˜5-10molecules of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) per molecule of carrier protein. Asshown in FIG. 4A, the β₁ ²⁵(41-65)-CA conjugate inhibited ¹²⁵I-TGF-β₁binding to TGF-β receptors in mink lung epithelial cells with an IC₅₀ of˜0.05 μM. The β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-BSA conjugate had a similar IC₅₀ of ˜0.06μM. These IC₅₀ are ˜20-fold lower than that of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)prior to conjugation. In the control experiments, both BSA and CAconjugated without peptides did not have inhibitory activity. Theseresults demonstrate that the multiple valences of the active site in theprotein conjugates enhance its affinity for binding to TGF-β receptors.

Potential agonist activities of the β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-protein conjugates wasalso examined. As shown in FIG. 4B, both β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-CA and β₁ ²⁵(41-65)-BSA conjugates induced a small but significant growth inhibitionas measured by DNA synthesis with an ED₅₀ of ˜0.1 μM, although neithershowed significant effects on the expression of PAI-1 in mink lungepithelial cells (data not shown). The growth inhibition (˜30-40%)induced by 0.2 μM β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-CA could be abolished in the presence of10 μM β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (data not shown). These results suggest that theseβ₁ ²⁵ (41-65)-protein conjugates are partial TGF-β agonists.

Example 2 Peptide TGF-β Antagonist Reduces Scarring and Promotes HealingExperimental Procedures

Materials—Peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (SEQ ID NO:4) was synthesized andpurified as described previously (Ref. 13). Sterile IntraSite® gel wasobtained from Smith and Nephew Medical, Limited (England). Ketamine wasobtained from Yung-Shin Pharmaceutical Co. (Taoyuan, Taiwan). Strenil®(azaperonum) and atropine were purchased from Janssen Animal HealthBVBA, Belgium and China Chemical and Pharmaceutical Co. (Taipei,Taiwan), respectively. Monoclonal antibodies to type I collagen andfibronectin were purchased from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.).

Animals—Female pigs (yorkshire strain and house inbred) weighing 20-25kg and six rabbits weighing 3 kg were used. The pigs were housed inindividual rooms, whereas female rabbits were kept in individual cages.Animals were fed standard laboratory chow and water ad libitum. Allstudy protocols were reviewed and approved by the respectiveinstitutional animal care committees.

Preparation of IntraSite® gel containing TGF-β peptantagonist (peptideTGF-beta antagonist). 1 ml of sterile 6 mM peptide β₁ ²⁵(41-65) inphosphate buffered saline or 1 ml of sterile phosphate buffered salinewas vigorously mixed with 3 ml of IntraSite® gel using two 10 mlsyringes connected with a three-way connector. The Intrasite® gelcontaining peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and Intrasite® gel containing bufferwithout peptide were stable at least for several weeks. Theconcentrations of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (0.75 and 1.5 mM) were found tobe effective in accelerating wound healing and reducing scarring underthe experimental conditions. However, 1.5 mM of peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)was used throughout the experiments described below.

Burn wound model. Four pigs weighing 20-25 kg were anesthetized byintramuscular injection of ketamine (5 mg/kg), strenil® (cazaporontun)(20 mg/kg) and atropine (5 mg/kg). Six uniform burn wounds (110° C., 30sec) were then made symmetrically on the back of each pig using amodified soldering iron (Ref. 15) with a flat contact area of 20 cm².The burn injury was equivalent to a full-thickness burn injury in humansand uniformly caused coagulation and necrosis of dermis. After wounding,a thin layer of Intrasite® gel containing either peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65),buffer or nothing else was applied to the wounds. All wounds weredressed with paraffin gauze. The dressing was changed every two days forthe first 10 days and twice a week for the next 30 days. Gel comprisingpeptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and control gel were applied and woundmeasurements were made at each dressing change.

Excision wound model. Four pigs received intramuscular injection ofketamine, strenil® and atropine as described above. Six excisioninjuries were generated by removing full-thickness sections of skin (3×3cm) from standardized sites on the back of each animal using a scapel.Three rabbits, were anesthetized by intramuscular injection of ketamine(5 mg/kg). Three excision injuries were produced in each by removingfull-thickness sections of skin (0.5×1 cm) from each ear. After wounds,a thin layer of IntraSite® gel containing peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) wasapplied to alternating wounds on each animal and IntraSite® gel+bufferwas applied to the other half. The excision wounds were then dressedwith a paraffin gauze. For pig experiments, the dressing was changedevery two days for the first 10 days and twice a week for the next 30days. For rabbit experiments, the dressing was changed for the first 3days. Gel containing peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) or control gel was applied ateach dressing change.

Assessment of wound healing. Wound healing was assessed by evaluatingthe rates of wound re-epithelization and contraction. The open woundarea and the area enclosed by the normal hair bearing skin were measuredusing the macrophotography technique (Ref. 14). The healing rate wasmonitored every two days for the first 10 days and twice a week for 30more days. Wound reepithelialization as a percent of the original woundsize was calculated using the following formula:

$E = {\frac{{An} - {Ao}}{An} \times 100}$

where E=rate of re-epithelialization in percent; An=area enclosed by thenormal hair bearing skin on a given post-burn day; Ao=area of open woundon the same day as was measured. Wound contraction was calculated usingthe following formula:

$C = {\frac{{Al} - {An}}{A\; l} \times 100}$

where C=rate of wound contraction in percent; Al=wound area as measuredimmediately following the burn or excision injury; An=area enclosed bynormal hair bearing skin.

Immunohistochemistry. The wounds were frozen immediately after beingremoved from animals on post-excision day 30. Serial sections wereplaced on polylysine-coated slides. The sections containing wound areaswere stained with hematoxylin/eosin and monoclonal antibodies to type Icollagen and fibronectin and biotin-conjugated rabbit anti-mouseIgG/streptavidin-conjugated horseradish peroxidase (Ref. 16). Thestained sections were examined and photographed by light microscopy.

Measurement of scar. The volumes of scar tissue were estimated bymultiplying their thickness by the size of the scar on post-burn day 41in pigs and post-excision day 10 in rabbits.

Experimental Results

The pig model is an art recognized model used in burn experimentsbecause porcine skin is anatomically very similar to human skin (Ref.15, 17). Pigs weighing about 20-25 kg were anesthetized by intramuscularinjection of ketamine (5 mg/kg). A soldering iron with a flat contactarea of ˜20 cm² was used to generate a full-thickness burn injury (110°C., 30 sec) on the skin of the back in four pigs. Six thermal burns(three on each side) were created on each pig. After wounding, twolesions were treated with a thin layer of a sterile IntraSite® gelcontaining peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (1.5 mM); two received gel alone andtwo received topical applications. All wounds were then bandaged andprotected from potential contact irritation with a fixed frame. Peptideβ₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and vehicle were applied every two days for the first 10days and twice a week for the next 30 days, at which time there-epithelialization and contraction of the wounds were measured andphotographed as well. As used herein, the term “vehicle” refersgenerally to any solvent, buffer, gel or carrier in which the activepeptide may be dispersed or dissolved, in the topical administration ofpeptide TGF-beta antagonists, the preferred vehicle is a gel, such asthe IntraSite® gel comprising modified carboxymethyl-cellulose polymerand propylene glycol. Each animal served as its own control. As shown inFIG. 6A, skin burn wounds treated with peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) exhibitedrapid re-epithelialization and less, contraction. The wounds showedsignificant re-epithelization and contraction after post-burn day 10.The re-epithelialization, which progressed from the surrounding woundmargins toward center, appeared to be complete on post-burn day 26±2(n=4) in wounds treated with peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) whereas the woundstreated with vehicle showed 70±10% (n=4) re-epithelialization by thistime (FIG. 6A). Healing of wounds treated without peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65)or vehicle was similar to that of the vehicle-only group. Wounds treatedwith peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) exhibited less contraction than those treatedwith vehicle only (FIG. 6B). On post-burn day 33, cutaneous burnstreated with peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) and vehicle only exhibited 50±4 (n=4)and 70±2% (n=4) contraction, respectively (FIG. 6B). On post-burn day34, the wounds treated with vehicle only exhibited a large area of openwound, whereas the wound treated with peptide β₁ ²³ (41-65) showed verylittle open wound (FIGS. 7C and D). On post-burn day 35, less scarringwas seen in wounds treated with Peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) than in thevehicle-only control wounds (FIG. 7 left E and F and FIG. 2 right E andF). The volumes of the scar tissue (on post-burn day 41) in woundstreated with peptide β₁ ²³ (41-65) and vehicle were 0.07±0.02 and0.40±0.05 cm³, respectively. As before, the non-treated controls wereindistinguishable from the vehicle-only group (data not shown). Theseresults indicate that Peptide β₁ ²³ (41-65) treatment acceleratesre-epithelialization and reduces scarring in the pig burn injury model.

To test the effect of synthetic peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) on scar formationafter a different type of standardized injury in pigs, sixfull-thickness of skin (3×3 cm) were removed from the back of pigs. Athin layer of sterile gel containing peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (1.5 mM) orbuffer was applied onto the wound immediately after the excision injuryand every two days for the first 10 days and twice a week for theremaining experimental days. The dimensions of each wound were measuredeach time prior to the application of TGF-β peptantagonist or vehicle.The peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) treatment attenuated contraction of the wound(FIG. 8). In contrast to the burn injury, the excision injury woundexhibited near complete horizontal (width of the healed wound)contraction by post-burn day 30 (FIG. 9). The wound treated with peptideβ₁ ²⁵ (41-65) showed less vertical (length of the healed wound)contraction compared with that treated with vehicle only (FIGS. 9C andD). On post-incision day 41, less scar formation was observed in thewound treated with peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) (FIGS. 9C and D).

Accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins such as typed collagen andfibronectin is responsible for wound contraction and scar formation(Refs. 8-12). TGF-β is known to mediate the deposition of suchextracellular matrix proteins by stimulating their biosynthesis andattenuating their degradation. Therefore, the content of type I collagenand fibronectin in excision-injury wounds (on post-excision day 30) inpigs was determined using immunohistochemistry. As shown in FIG. 10,peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) treatment diminished the deposition of type Icollagen and fibronectin (FIGS. 10C vs 10D and 10E vs 10F,respectively).

The effect of the peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) was examined on scar formationafter excision injury in the rabbit, which is another art-standard modelof wound healing (Ref. 18). As shown in FIG. 11, the peptide β₁ ²⁵(41-65) treatment attenuated scar formation after rabbit ear excisioninjury on post-excision day 10, whereas the wounds treated with vehicleonly controls exhibited significant formation of scars. The volumes ofscar tissue on post-excision day 10 in wounds treated with peptide β₁ ²⁵(41-65), vehicle only, and without peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) or vehicle wereestimated to be 0.005±0.01 (n=6), 0.05±0.01 (n=6) and 0.04±0.02 (n=6)cm³, respectively. There were no apparent deleterious effects of peptideβ₁ ²⁵ (41-65) or gel in any animal.

Thus it has been demonstrated that a specific synthetic peptide β₁ ²⁵(41-65) accelerates re-epithelialization and reduces wound contractionand scarring in the pig burn injury model and diminishes woundcontraction and scarring in both the pig and rabbit excision injurymodels. The finding that re-epithelialization is accelerated by thepeptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) is somewhat unexpected. Burn wound healingconsists of epithelialization, contraction and formation of granulationand scar tissue (Refs. 8-12). TGF-β is believed to be involved in mostof these events. The antagonist peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65) is thought toblock or slow down the occurrence of these events. The mechanism ofenhanced re-epithelialization in wounds treated with the peptide β₁ ²⁵(41-65) remains to be determined, but may involve increased keratinocyteproliferation (transient inhibition of keratinocyte proliferation byTGF-β may be an integral component in the complex process of woundhealing) coupled with a migration response stimulated by growth factorsother than TGF-β (Refs. 18-21). The peptide β₁ ²⁵ (41-65), which wasrecently shown to block complex formation between α₂-macroglobulin andgrowth factors, cytokines and hormones (Ref. 22), may enhance activationof these substances or agents by blocking inhibition of their activitiesmediated by α₂-macroglobulin.

1. A non-naturally occurring peptide derived from residues 41 to 65 ofTGF-β, wherein said non-naturally occurring peptide comprises an aminoacid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:4 and containsthe sequence WSXD wherein X is any amino, acid.
 2. The peptide of claim1, wherein said non-naturally occurring peptide comprises an amino acidsequence wherein the amino acid residues corresponding to cysteineresidues 44 and 48 of TGF-β are replaced by serine residues.
 3. Thepeptide of claim 1, wherein said peptide is conjugated to a carrierprotein.
 4. The peptide of claim 3, wherein said carrier protein isbovine serum albumin or human carbonic anhydrase.
 5. The peptide ofclaim 1, wherein said peptide is conjugated to a synthetic polymer. 6.The peptide of claim 5, wherein said synthetic polymer is polyethyleneglycol.
 7. The peptide of claim 1, wherein said peptide is radiolabeled.8. The peptide of claim 7, wherein said peptide is radiolabeled with¹²⁵I.
 9. The peptide of claim 1, wherein said WSXD sequence is in themiddle of the peptide amino acid sequence.
 10. The peptide of claim 1,wherein said peptide comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:12.11. A method for inhibiting TGF-β activity in a mammal or mammaliancell, comprising the steps of: a) administering to said mammal ormammalian cell a composition comprising a non-naturally occurringpeptide derived from residues 41 to 65 of TGF-β, wherein saidnon-naturally occurring peptide comprises an amino acid sequence that isat least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:4 and contains the sequence WSXDwherein X is any amino acid; and b) inhibiting the binding of TGF-β tothe TGF-β receptor, thereby inhibiting the activity of TGF-β in saidmammal or mammalian cell.
 12. The method of claim 11 wherein saidnon-naturally occurring peptide comprises an amino acid sequence whereinthe amino acid residues corresponding to cysteine residues 44 and 48 ofTGF-β are replaced by serine residues.
 13. The method of claim 11,wherein said peptide is conjugated to a carrier protein.
 14. The methodof claim 13, wherein said carrier protein is bovine serum albumin orhuman carbonic anhydrase.
 15. The method of claim 11, wherein saidpeptide is conjugated to a synthetic polymer.
 16. The method of claim15, wherein said synthetic polymer is polyethylene glycol.
 17. Themethod of claim 11, wherein said peptide is radiolabeled.
 18. The methodof claim 17, wherein said peptide is radiolabeled with ¹²⁵I.
 19. Themethod of claim 11, wherein said WSXD sequence is in the middle of thepeptide amino acid sequence.
 20. The method of claim 11, wherein saidmammal is a human or wherein said mammalian cell is a human cell.
 21. Amethod for treating a disease mediated by TGF-β activity in a mammal,comprising the steps of: a) administering to said mammal a compositioncomprising a non-naturally occurring peptide derived from residues 41 to65 of TGF-β, wherein said non-naturally occurring peptide comprises anamino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ IDl NO:4 andcontains the sequence WSXD wherein X is any amino acid; and b)inhibiting the binding of TGF-β to the TGF-β receptor, thereby treatinga disease mediated by TGF-β in said mammal or mammalian cell.
 22. Themethod of claim 21, wherein said non-naturally occurring peptidecomprises an amino acid sequence wherein the amino acid residuescorresponding to cysteine residues 44 and 48 of TGF-β are replaced byserine residues.
 23. The method of claim 21, wherein said peptide isconjugated to a carrier protein.
 24. The method of claim 23, whereinsaid carrier protein is bovine serum albumin or human carbonicanhydrase.
 25. The method of claim 21, wherein said peptide isconjugated to a synthetic polymer.
 26. The method of claim 25, whereinsaid synthetic polymer is polyethylene glycol.
 27. The method of claim21, wherein said WSXD sequence is in the middle of the peptide aminoacid sequence.
 28. The method of claim 21, wherein said mammal is ahuman.
 29. The method of claim 21, wherein said disease is selected fromthe group consisting of scarring of a wound, lung injury in adultrespiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), restenosis following angioplasty,intimal hyperplasia following angioplasty, tissue fibrosis, andglomerulonephritis.
 30. The method of claim 29 wherein said tissuefibrosis is selected from the group consisting of scar formation, livercirrhosis, kidney fibrosis, cystic fibrosis, lung fibrosis, and heartfibrosis.
 31. The method of claim 29, wherein said wound is selectedfrom the list consisting of a puncture wound, a laceration, an abrasion,a pressure wound and a burn.